Devon’s rivers, streams, canals and ditches form a network of watercourses that’s around 15,600 kilometres long.
This network provides wildlife habitat and critical connectivity right across the county.
78% are not in good ecological status.
River Dart, David Chamberlain
Hembury, River Dart – Adrian Colston
River Okement
Clear, unpolluted water in a natural channel that reflects the local geology and conditions and is teeming with wildlife. The banks and surrounding land are diverse and create a natural wildlife corridor that weaves through the landscape.
Freshwater mammals: Otter, beaver, water vole.
Fish: migratory fish (including Atlantic salmon and eels).
Invertebrates: Freshwater pearl mussel, native white-clawed crayfish, a fly (Leucophora sponsa)
Lichens, bryophytes: aquatic lichens, mid river bryophytes
Vegetated watercourse corridors provide critical habitat and connectivity for a range of other Focus Species including bats, butterflies and birds.
UK priority habitat: Agree what to say with EA/WRT
Statutory irreplaceable habitat: Natural watercourses aren’t statutory irreplaceable habitats but could be considered as such.
Rivers, streams, canals and their vegetated banks and floodplain habitats are the wildlife-rich veins of Devon’s nature network. They provide unique habitats and critical connectivity for wildlife. Because of its high rainfall and diverse geology, Devon has a higher density of watercourses than most other counties.
Most natural watercourses in Devon start life as fast-flowing streams (headwaters) in the bogs of Dartmoor and Exmoor or rise on the wetlands of north Devon and the Blackdown Hills. However, there are springs and streams all across Devon that feed into our complex watercourse network.
Each watercourse has its own assemblage of species suited to its unique character and history. The faster-flowing upper reaches of rivers support species such as dipper, grey wagtails, salmon, bullhead and trout. Slower, calmer waters in the lower reaches support plants, invertebrates and birds such as herons and kingfishers. The ancient woodlands that have survived along many of Devon’s steep river valleys support moisture-loving mosses and lichens. Vegetated riverbanks provide connectivity for lots of wildlife, including rare bats.
All watercourses across Devon are in one of 695 (?) natural water catchments, which the Environment Agency has brought together into four management catchments: Tamar, North Devon, South Devon and East Devon. These management catchments are designed to improve how water resources are protected and managed. Each has a Catchment Partnership that works together to ensure a healthy water environment. (see Find out more below for more information).
Tamar catchment: Includes the Plym, Tavy, Thrushel, Wolf and Lyd, which all rise on Dartmoor, and the Tamar, which rises in the culm on the Cornish border south of Hartland. All flow into Plymouth Sound. This catchment also includes the Yealm and its tributaries, which flow into the Yealm estuary.
South Devon catchment: Includes the Erme, Avon, Dart and Teign, which start as streams on Dartmoor’s bogs and flow into their own estuaries.
North Devon catchment: Includes the Taw, which rises on Dartmoor and is joined by the river Mole and its major tributaries and by the Bray and Yeo, flowing from the edge of Exmoor. Also includes, the Torridge which rises in the culm wetlands south of Hartland and is joined by the Okement flowing from Dartmoor. The Taw and Torridge flow into a large shared estuary on the north Devon coast. The north Devon and Hartland streams are a collection of short streams which flow to the sea through deeply-cut wooded river valleys.
East Devon catchment: Includes the Exe, which rises on Exmoor, and its tributaries such as the Creed, which rises north of Crediton, the Clyst, which rises near Clyst Hydon, and the Culm, which rises in the Blackdowns. All flow into the Exe Estuary. This catchment also includes the Axe, Sid and Otter, which all rise in the wetlands of the Blackdown Hills scarp slopes, and their tributaries.
There are seven canals across Devon, including the Grand Western Canal north of Tiverton, which is a Local Nature Reserve, Exeter Ship Canal, one of the oldest artificial waterways in the UK, and Tavistock canal. See Find out more below for a full list.
Watercourses are at the heart of complex natural systems that are much more than the water flowing between the banks. A healthy and diverse watercourse system has a wide range of wildlife habitats supporting invertebrates and plants that form the base of a food chain topped by predators such as otters and kingfishers.
Healthy watercourse systems need:
Watercourses
– Water and flows. Water quality is the keystone of ecological health. Acidity, oxygen levels, turbidity and the amounts and types of dissolved nutrients and chemicals all affect species survival. The amount of water and its temperature are also critical. Low water flows and high temperatures can be very damaging to wildlife.
– Riverbed. Riverbeds are not uniform and can have huge variety. Gravels, pebbles, rocks and sediments, dead wood, vegetation, pools and riffles all provide wildlife habitats. For example, rare beetles live on dead wood in watercourses and gravel beds provide critical spawning areas for fish such as salmon, trout, bullhead and lamprey.
– Vertical riverbanks. On the immediate banks of a river, bare soil, tree roots, exposed boulders and dead wood provide breeding and foraging sites and shelter for species such as otters, water voles, kingfishers, sand martins and many invertebrates.
Riparian zone (bank tops and floodplain)
The riparian zone is the land adjacent to and influenced by a watercourse. Its width can vary hugely. Along smaller watercourses it can be very narrow, extending from the stream bank to where the slope breaks. On larger rivers it can extend into wide floodplains. It can include steep valley sides that are affected by high humidity and water spray, such as in gorges.
– Bank tops. A mosaic of trees and dense native vegetation and scrub along banks provides important habitat. It also provides dappled shade that prevents river temperatures increasing but lets in enough sunlight for plants and algae to grow.
Bank tops provide critical habitat and connectivity across Devon. For example, bats (especially species such as Daubenton’s) use the dark, sheltered, tree-lined banks as flight lines while feeding on insects that live in the rivers.
– Floodplain. Lower down a river system, the riparian zone can extend across a wide floodplain, sometimes constrained by flood embankments (such as on the Tamar, Taw, Torridge and Clyst). The major floodplains in Devon are found on the Axe, Exe (and its tributaries such as the Clyst and Culm), Teign, Tamar, Torridge and Taw. However, small areas of floodplain are found in all catchments. Because sediments are deposited during floods, freshwater floodplains can have rich soils and are largely agricultural land. Consultation question: Do any support breeding waders – snipe? Could they support lapwing etc again?
Wider landscape
– Valleys. Stream networks extend up valley sides and into headwaters forming a network of wildlife corridors that are connected with most other habitats across Devon. A mosaic of habitats in valleys, including wet woodlands, mires, ponds, hedges, wildlife-rich grasslands and other woodlands and trees, provides connected wildlife habitats and helps buffer watercourses from pollutants.
– Catchments. A river’s catchment is the entire area of land that receives the rainfall that drains into the river. How this land is managed has a huge impact on water quality and quantity. See Key pressures and opportunities below.
– Estuaries. Estuaries form where many of Devon’s rivers meet the sea. They’re a vital part of the river system, forming important pathways for many species of migratory fish such as Atlantic salmon and eels when they pass between marine and freshwater environments as part of their lifecycle. See Coast for more information.
Many protected species depend on Devon’s rivers. Some rivers once supported good populations of freshwater pearl mussels and white-clawed crayfish, but both species are now at risk of extinction in the county. The Atlantic salmon is present in several Devon rivers, but populations are in steep decline in most and several other fish species, including allis and twaite shad and European eel, are at high risk (see Fish). However, there are signs that some protected species are recovering. Devon now has a growing population of European beavers, water vole populations have recovered in some places, otters have returned and allis shad are thought to be spawning again on the Taw. All these species are also identified as Focus Species in the LNRS.
Many other species that depend on our rivers are notable for their rarity and are classified as Devon Species of Conservation Concern (Focus Species are listed in Snaphot above). These include: Finalise through Consultation.
Birds: common sandpiper, kingfisher, grey heron, goosander and sand martin.
Mosses and lichens: river jelly lichen, Atlantic pocket-moss and Welsh thread-moss.
Bugs and beetles: brass-necked water beetle, beetles associated with riffle habitats and a long-toed water beetle.
Dragonflies: scarce chaser and white-legged damselfly.
Relevant current strategies to improve watercourses include River Basin Management Plans, Diffuse Water Pollution Plan, Landscape Recovery Fund, catchment sensitive farming and the emerging Nature Restoration Funds (see links in Find out more below). However these strategies do not focus action on certain rivers and so this prioritisation of rivers for wildlife and holistic recovery has been completed by the EA and WRT as part of the LNRS to maximise the potential for real recovery.
“Freshwater habitats across the UK are under pressure. Populations of many freshwater species are declining, with over 10% threatened with extinction. An estimated 90% of wetlands, have been lost over the last century, while most rivers and lakes are not considered to be close to their natural state in any part of the UK.” Only 16% of rivers and lakes achieve Good or High ecological status under the Water Environment Regulations in England (UK Parliament Post Note 709).
The lower section of the River Axe is Devon’s only legally protected river. It’s designated as an SSSI and an SAC because of its important plant communities and is classified by Natural England as being in “unfavourable condition, declining”. This is mainly due to nutrient enrichment, especially from phosphates and siltation.
There are 695 river and estuary waterbodies across Devon. Under the Water Environment Regulations, the Environment Agency classifies the main rivers and tributaries according to their ecological status (see the link to River Basin Management Plans in Find out more below). Of those classified in 2019:
None were at High Ecological status
22% were Good
62% were Moderate (note that Moderate is still equivalent to a ‘fail’)
15% were Poor
1% were Bad.
The key factors affecting these assessments include pollution from rural areas, pollution from wastewater and physical modifications. See Key pressures and opportunities below.
None of Devon’s rivers are now in their natural condition as they’ve all been heavily affected by human activity over centuries. The degree of damage varies, but most have lost so much of their original structure that returning them to their natural state is no longer a realistic goal. Instead, the goal should be to maximise their value for wildlife in the form they’re now in.
Agriculture
Agriculture has intensified since World War Two, driven by the need for food security. As a result, we now have higher livestock numbers (that generate more manure), more land-drainage, the widespread use of artificial fertilisers and frequent cultivation of ground during wetter times of year. All can cause topsoil, fertilisers, pesticides, manure, antibiotics and other pollutants to run off into rivers.
Funding for land management changes that can support improvements to rivers is now available to all farmers and landowners through the Environmental Land Management Scheme. The LNRS can help target this funding to where it can have the most effect. Several Landscape Recovery Schemes in Devon have water quality and quantity, including river restoration, as their main or a significant focus.
Human waste
Population growth and lifestyle changes mean an ever-increasing volume of wastewater needs to be treated. In addition, this wastewater contains increasing amounts of chemicals including pharmaceuticals, herbicides and solvents. Our treatment plants – both public and private – are often not up to the task. However, the Environment Agency and South West Water have plans in place to tackle these problems. See Find out more below for more information.
Roads
Run-off from roads can contain damaging pollutants and often runs directly into watercourses. However, there’s growing awareness of the problem and the need for more treatment to reduce its impact.
Acidification
A few rivers that flow from Dartmoor, such as the West Dart, have been identified as being in ‘acid vulnerable catchments’. This may be due to conifer plantations or flushes off degraded peat and other human sources such as acid precipitation from historic industry. See the map showing rivers vulnerable to acidification in Find out more below.
In some stretches of river a lack of tree management means the river has become too shaded. In others a lack of trees exposes the river to high temperatures, reduces habitat for fish and invertebrates and leaves river banks vulnerable to erosion. In the wider watercourse corridor, the loss of many habitats to agriculture and development means the river has lost essential buffering and connectivity.
Invasive species can spread rapidly in rivers and damage ecosystems. Examples include Himalayan balsam, which can blanket riverbanks and shade out other species (although it’s a good source of nectar and pollen for insects), and the American signal crayfish, which outcompetes our native white-clawed crayfish and can destabilise riverbanks with its burrows. See Invasive and disease for more information.
Flooding
Higher and more intense rainfall combined with our more intensively-managed landscape and a legacy of straightening and channelling rivers means that flooding is a growing problem. Some soils are easily compacted so that rainfall, rather than soaking into the ground, quickly runs off into rivers and can cause flooding downstream. Flooding is not only a risk to property, it can also harm wildlife.
Nature-based solutions such as natural flood management are increasingly being used to reduce flood risk. These solutions often provide good habitats for wildlife. For example, the re-introduction of beavers is a huge opportunity as these natural engineers create wildlife-rich wetlands that slow the flow of water in times of flood.
Abstraction
Some of Devon’s rivers are important sources of drinking water and most are also used to irrigate crops. Artificially managed flows below reservoir dams can interrupt natural river processes and impact on river species that are dependent on natural river flows during their lifecycles, such as migrating salmon and trout. Population growth and increased tourism mean that urgent action is needed in some rivers. This has been recognised by government and the Environment Agency and South West Water are developing plans that include reducing household water-use, fixing leaks in the system and, as a last resort, desalination plants or building new reservoirs (although none are planned in Devon). Beaver-created wetlands can also help maintain water levels.
More intense rainfall as a result of climate change is causing flooding that seriously erodes riverbanks and scours river beds. It’s also causing periods of drought and high temperatures that can harm and kill many river-dependent species.
More frequent and intense floods and droughts are affecting people’s lives and the viability of businesses to a degree not seen before. As a result, climate change is making people more aware of how central water is to our lives, which could encourage action.
Humans have modified river channels for many reasons, often to try and reduce flooding or erosion. Modifications include straightening, building embankments, dredging stone and removing woody debris and bankside trees. However, these changes are often unsuccessful because they can cause the river to behave in a more damaging way somewhere else in the system. The loss of gravels from dredging impacts on fish spawning and increases erosion of the riverbed. Weirs and dams form barriers to fish migration and are a particular issue on many Devon rivers.
Since the Bronze Age, farming and woodland clearance have caused soil to run off from valley hillsides, causing thick layers of sediment to accumulate over the floodplain in the valley bottom. In many cases, the course of the rivers now cut deep channels through these sediment layers. Because the river channels are deeper, water that would spill onto the wider area of the floodplain at times of high flow, now stays concentrated in the narrow river channels. This causes further scour, often going down through the original base layers of stone that once protected the riverbed into more soft material below. All of this adds to the amount of sediment in the river and flowing out to sea, causing loss of valuable habitat, which further damages ecosystems. Reconnecting our now drained and cultivated non-estuarine floodplains as part of a natural system is likely to be extremely costly. In most cases it would be better to establish a wide diversity of other habitats on the floodplain wherever possible.
There’s growing awareness that the state of our rivers has declined alarmingly and action is needed to reverse these declines. This is driving changes to legislation and policy, which mean businesses and the state are using more resources to tackle the problems.
Local communities are part of this drive for change. More and more people are coming together to put pressure on decision-makers to improve our rivers. Many are launching public campaigns or training as citizen scientists to monitor water quality and river ecology. This is helping to grow awareness of, and skills in, working with nature and using nature-based solutions to tackle the impacts of flood and drought.
New opportunities to restore rivers and wetlands under Countryside Stewardship (CS) are a chance to expand wetland habitats and encourage good management of rivers, wetlands and riverside habitats. However, there are concerns about limiting this to Higher Tier CS and the potential need to write a competitive farm-scale application.
The English Woodland Creation Offer (EWCO) provides funding to create nature-rich riparian corridors.
The Environment Agency has developed the water industry national environment programme (WINEP), a set of actions all 20 water companies operating in England must complete to meet their environmental obligations.
Text on other project and funding opportunities to be added through consultation. Catchment Sensitive Farming / Catchment Partnerships / Nature restoration fun………. Lots of orgs working to restore healthy watercourses such as WRT, EA, DWT, Biosphere, Protected Landscapes, Landscape Recovery Projects (Heaths to Sea on the Otter etc) recreation and health , fishing and economic benefits
Wildlife-rich and resilient watercourse corridors that are connected to a network of habitats across the landscape.
See Find out more below for detailed guidance and sources of funding and advice.
More detailed actions are set out for the following Focus Species:
Follow the links below to the relevant Focus Species pages as well as to relevant habitat and wider theme pages:
Many of the actions listed above will be highly beneficial across the wider landscape and should be carried out everywhere. For example, wherever natural habitats are created, watercourses will benefit. Reducing pollution is another action that applies everywhere.
Actions are prioritised to the following High Opportunity Areas (in bold). See Mapping for the LNRS Viewer and information on how areas have been mapped.
Watercourse corridors: All rivers, streams and canals are a critical part of the Devon nature recovery network and are therefore mapped as High Opportunity Areas. Mapping includes:
– The watercourse itself
– Flood Zone 2 (where the probability of flooding is between 1 in 100 years and 1 in 1000 years).
– A buffer of 10m out from the bank top in places where Flood Zone 2 doesn’t apply
Full Restoration Rivers (FuRRs): To be effective river restoration needs to be targeted and delivered at scale. This is very expensive and so funding needs to be targeted to where it will make most difference. Rivers where full river restoration actions have the greatest chance of success have been identified for the LNRS by the EA and West Country Rivers Trust. These are in two groups:
1. Target to achieve High ecological status under the Water Environment Regulations
– Lyd (a tributary of the Tamar and an important spawning area for salmon).
– Okement (a tributary of the Torridge and critical for the survival of the River Torridge salmon population).
– Barle (a significant tributary of the Exe which plays an important role in the viability of its salmon population. However, most of the Barle is in Somerset, with only a short stretch in Devon south of Dulverton where it enters the Exe. Talk to Somerset LNRS team.)
2. Target to achieve Good ecological status under the Water Environment Regulations
– Avon
– Axe
– Dart
– Mole (a tributary of the Taw) and Bray (a tributary of the Mole)
– Teign (excluding Lemon)
– Sid
The methodology used to choose these rivers and the actions needed are here. The actions are summarised here.
Case studies and Where to visit will be agreed following discussion through public consultation period and then finalised.
There’s lots of great work going on across Devon and some of this can be seen on the Devon Action for Nature Map. If you’re doing something to help Devon’s watercourses please it add to the map.
A range of conservation action is taking place along the River Axe. There’s an active catchment partnership and river restoration and widespread water pollution plans are in place. The Upper Axe Landscape Recovery Feasibility Pilot is in development. Farming in a Protected Landscape, Water Environment Investment Fund and Countryside Stewardship schemes are being used throughout the catchment. Farm advice and focus enforcement has been carried out.
River restoration projects on the Axe include large woody debris at Magdalen farm and the addition of riverbed stone on the Yarty (one of the tributaries of the Axe).
Photos… (Julian/ Tim)
The River Teign Restoration Project (2021-25) aimed to improve the river for migratory fish, focusing on salmon and trout. Volunteers helped improve habitats along the river and carry out surveys, while arts events helped raise awareness among local communities.
Always follow the Countryside Code and keep to footpaths and sites which are managed for public access. Good places to see watercourse corridors include:
To add more details
For information on visiting these and other sites see the Explore Devon website.
Add more links and tidy up, and finalise following discussion through public consultation.
The West Country Rivers Trust website has information on rivers in Devon, including current and recent projects.
More links needed…….
Water Environment Improvement Fund projects – GOV.UK
Factsheet: Nature Restoration Fund – GOV.UK
About the Water Restoration Fund – GOV.UK
UK Forestry Standard Practice Guide: Creating and managing riparian woodland.
The Farming Advice Service includes information on Catchment Sensitive Farming including: Consultation question: where is the guidance on these pages?
– Nutrient, slurry and manure management
– Soil health
– Pesticide handling
– Natural flood management
– Reducing ammonia emissions
– Sustainable water use
– Guidance on farming schemes and regulations
– The Environment Agency’s ALERT tool (Agricultural Land Environmental Risk and Opportunity Tool), which aims to help guide crop planting and other land management decisions.
South Devon Catchment Partnerships: Catchment plan
National targets: Reduce pollution from agriculture by 40% by 2038 (compared to 2018). Add reference. Others?
Priorities from the South West River Basin Management Plan:
– Preventing deterioration of the status of surface waters and groundwater
– Achieving objectives and standards for protected areas
– Aiming to achieve good status for all water bodies
– Reversing any significant and sustained upward trends in pollutant concentrations in groundwater
– Cessation of discharges, emissions and losses of priority hazardous substances into surface waters
– Progressively reducing the pollution of groundwater and preventing or limiting the entry of pollutants
The Environment Agency has produced a Viewer that shows the condition of each waterbody.
Their Catchment Data Explorer has more detailed information for Devon East and Devon South.
Water industry regulation document – The Water Industry (Special Administration) Regulations 2024
Add link to the SWW drainage and Wastewater management plan and Upstream thinking
Forest Research has a map showing rivers vulnerable to acidification.
Watercourses designated as ‘main rivers’ are overseen by the Environment Agency. These are usually larger watercourses that pose a higher flood risk. The rest of the network, known as ‘ordinary watercourses’, is overseen by the lead local flood authority which in Devon is Devon County Council. Both authorities have permissive powers to carry out maintenance, improvement, or construction work on watercourses to manage flood risk and protect the environment.
The Environment Agency has a publication, Your watercourse: rights and roles, that explains the rights and roles of anyone who owns land beside a watercourse.
Consultation question: Any info that we can link to that gives an overview of Devon’s canals?
– Grand Western Canal: This canal runs between Tiverton and the hamlet of Lowdwells, close to the Somerset border. It’s now a designated country park and local nature reserve.
– Exeter Ship Canal: One of the oldest artificial waterways in the UK, it connects Exeter to the River Exe.
– Stover Canal: Near Newton Abbot, this canal was originally built to transport ball clay.
– Tavistock Canal: This canal runs from Tavistock to Morwellham Quay on the River Tamar.
– Rolle Canal: Near Great Torrington, this canal was primarily used to transport limestone and coal.
– Braunton Canal: A small canal near Braunton, used historically for drainage and irrigation.
– Cann Quarry Canal: Near Plympton, this canal was used to transport granite.
